Chapter 6 - Helicopter Attitude Instrument Flying

Introduction

Attitude instrument flying in helicopters is essentially visual flying with the flight instruments substituted for the various reference points on the helicopter and the natural horizon. Control changes, required to produce a given attitude by reference to instruments, are identical to those used in helicopter visual flight rules (VFR) flight, and your thought processes are the same. Basic instrument training is intended as a building block towards attaining an instrument rating.

Flight Instruments

When flying a helicopter with reference to the flight instruments, proper instrument interpretation is the basis for aircraft control. Your skill, in part, depends on your understanding of how a particular instrument or system functions, including its indications and limitations (see Chapter 3, “Flight Instruments”). With this knowledge, you can quickly determine what an instrument is telling you and translate that information into a control response.

To achieve smooth, positive control of the helicopter during instrument flight, you need to develop three fundamental skills. They are instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.

Attitude instrument flying:

Controlling the aircraft by reference to the instruments rather than outside visual cues.

Instrument Cross-Check

Cross-checking, sometimes referred to as scanning, is the continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information. In attitude instrument flying, an attitude is maintained by reference to the instruments, which produces the desired result in performance. Due to human error, instrument error, and helicopter performance differences in various atmospheric and loading conditions, it is difficult to establish an attitude and have performance remain constant for a long period of time. These variables make it necessary for you to constantly check the instruments and make appropriate changes in the helicopter’s attitude. The actual technique may vary depending on what instruments are installed and where they are installed, as well as your experience and proficiency level. This discussion concentrates on the six basic flight instruments. [figure 6-1]

At first, you may have a tendency to cross-check rapidly, looking directly at the instruments without knowing exactly what information you are seeking. However, with familiarity and practice, the instrument cross-check reveals definite trends during specific flight conditions. These trends help you control the helicopter as it makes a transition from one flight condition to another.

attitude indicator, heading indicator, attitude indicator, and so on.

If you apply your full concentration to a single instrument, you will encounter a problem called fixation. This results from a natural human inclination to observe a specific instrument carefully and accurately, often to the exclusion of other instruments. Fixation on a single instrument usually results in poor control. For example, while performing a turn, you may have a tendency to watch only the turn-and-slip indicator instead of including other instruments in your crosscheck. This fixation on the turn-and-slip indicator often leads to a loss of altitude through poor pitch-and-bank control. You should look at each instrument only long enough to understand the information it presents, then continue on to the next one. Similarly, you may find yourself placing too much “emphasis” on a single instrument, instead of relying on a combination of instruments necessary for helicopter perfor-

Fixation: Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting the cross-check process.

mance information. This differs from fixation in that you are using other instruments, but are giving too much attention to a particular one.

During performance of a maneuver, you may sometimes fail to anticipate significant instrument indications following attitude changes. For example, during level-off from a climb or descent, you may concentrate on pitch control, while forgetting about heading or roll information. This error, called “omission,” results in erratic control of heading and bank.

In spite of these common errors, most pilots can adapt well to flight by instrument reference after instruction and practice. You may find that you can control the helicopter more easily and precisely by instruments.

Instrument Interpretation

The flight instruments together give a picture of what is going on. No one instrument is more important than the next; however, during certain maneuvers or conditions, those instruments that provide the most pertinent and useful information are termed primary instruments. Those which back up and supplement the primary instruments are termed supporting instruments. For example, since the attitude indicator is the only instrument that provides instant and direct aircraft attitude information, it should be considered primary during any change in pitch or bank attitude. After the new attitude is established, other instruments become primary, and the attitude indicator usually becomes the supporting instrument.

Aircraft Control

Controlling the helicopter is the result of accurately interpreting the flight instruments and translating these readings into correct control responses. Aircraft control involves adjustment to pitch, bank, power, and trim in order to achieve a desired flight path.

Pitch attitude control is controlling the movement of the helicopter about its lateral axis. After interpreting the helicopter’s pitch attitude by reference to the pitch instruments (attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator), cyclic control adjustments are made to affect the desired pitch attitude. In this chapter, the pitch attitudes depicted are approximate and will vary with different helicopters.

Bank attitude control is controlling the angle made by the lateral tilt of the rotor and the natural horizon, or, the movement of the helicopter about its longitudinal axis. After interpreting the helicopter’s bank instruments (attitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn indicator), cyclic control adjustments are made to attain the desired bank attitude.

Power control is the application of collective pitch with corresponding throttle control, where applicable. In straight-and-level flight, changes of collective pitch are made to correct for altitude deviations if the error is more than 100 feet, or the airspeed is off by more than 10 knots. If the error is less than that amount, use a slight cyclic climb or descent.

In order to fly a helicopter by reference to the instruments, you should know the approximate power settings required for your particular helicopter in various load configurations and flight conditions.

Trim, in helicopters, refers to the use of the cyclic centering button, if the helicopter is so equipped, to relieve all possible cyclic pressures. Trim also refers to the use of pedal adjustment to center the ball of the turn indicator. Pedal trim is required during all power changes.

The proper adjustment of collective pitch and cyclic friction helps you relax during instrument flight. Friction should be adjusted to minimize overcontrolling and to prevent creeping, but not applied to such a degree that control movement is limited. In addition, many helicopters equipped for instrument flight contain stability augmentation systems or an autopilot to help relieve pilot workload.

deceleration, or turns. This precession error can be detected quickly by cross-checking the other pitch instruments.

If the miniature aircraft is properly adjusted on the ground, it may not require readjustment in flight. If the miniature aircraft is not on the horizon bar after level-off at normal cruising airspeed, adjust it as necessary while maintaining level flight with the other pitch instruments. Once the miniature aircraft has been adjusted in level flight at normal cruising airspeed, leave it unchanged so it will give an accurate picture of pitch attitude at all times.

When making initial pitch attitude corrections to maintain altitude, the changes of attitude should be small and smoothly applied. The initial movement of the horizon bar should not exceed one bar width high or low. [figure 6-3] If a further change is required, an additional correction of one-half bar normally corrects any deviation from the desired altitude. This one-and-one-half bar correction is normally the maximum pitch attitude correction from level flight attitude. After you have made the correction, cross-check the other pitch instruments to determine whether the pitch attitude change is sufficient. If more correction is needed to return to altitude, or if the airspeed varies more than 10 knots from that desired, adjust the power.

The altimeter gives an indirect indication of the pitch attitude of the helicopter in straight-and-level flight. Since the altitude should remain constant in level flight, deviation from the desired altitude shows a need for a change in pitch attitude, and if necessary, power. When losing altitude, raise the pitch attitude and, if necessary, add power. When gaining altitude, lower the pitch attitude and, if necessary, reduce power.

The rate at which the altimeter moves helps in determining pitch attitude. A very slow movement of the altimeter indicates a small deviation from the desired pitch attitude, while a fast movement of the altimeter indicates a large deviation from the desired pitch attitude. Make any corrective action promptly, with small control changes. Also, remember that movement of the altimeter should always be corrected by two distinct changes. The first is a change of attitude to stop the altimeter; and the second, a change of attitude to return smoothly to the desired altitude. If the altitude and airspeed are more than 100 feet and 10 knots low, respectively, apply power along with an increase of pitch attitude. If the altitude and airspeed are high by more than 100 feet and 10 knots, reduce power and lower the pitch attitude.

There is a small lag in the movement of the altimeter; however, for all practical purposes, consider that the altimeter gives an immediate indication of a change, or a need for change in pitch attitude.

Since the altimeter provides the most pertinent information regarding pitch in level flight, it is considered primary for pitch.

The vertical speed indicator (VSI) gives an indirect indication of the pitch attitude of the helicopter and should be used in conjunction with the other pitch instruments to attain a high

lowered. A rapid change in airspeed indicates a large change in pitch attitude, and a slow change in airspeed indicates a small change in pitch attitude. There is very little lag in the indications of the airspeed indicator. If, while making attitude changes, you notice some lag between control application and change of airspeed, it is most likely due to cyclic control lag. Generally, a departure from the desired airspeed, due to an inadvertent pitch attitude change, also results in a change in altitude. For example, an increase in airspeed due to a low pitch attitude results in a decrease in altitude. A correction in the pitch attitude regains both airspeed and altitude.

Bank Control

The bank attitude of a helicopter is the angular relation of its lateral axis and the natural horizon. To maintain a straight course in visual flight, you must keep the lateral axis of the helicopter level with the natural horizon. Assuming the helicopter is in coordinated flight, any deviation from a laterally level attitude produces a turn. [figure 6-4]

Attitude Indicator

The attitude indicator gives a direct indication of the bank attitude of the helicopter. For instrument flight, the miniature aircraft and the horizon bar of the attitude indicator are substituted for the actual helicopter and the natural horizon. Any change in bank attitude of the helicopter is indicated instantly by the miniature aircraft. For proper interpretations of this instrument, you should imagine being in the miniature aircraft. If the helicopter is properly trimmed and the rotor tilts, a turn begins. The turn can be stopped by leveling the miniature aircraft with the horizon bar. The ball in the turn-and-slip indicator should always be kept centered through proper pedal trim.

The angle of bank is indicated by the pointer on the banking scale at the top of the instrument. [figure 6-5] Small bank angles which may not be seen by observing the miniature aircraft, can easily be determined by referring to the banking scale pointer.

Coordinated: Using the controls to maintain or establish various conditions of flight with (1) a minimum disturbance of the forces maintaining equilibrium, or (2) the control action necessary to effect the smoothest changes in equilibrium.

Pitch-and-bank attitudes can be determined simultaneously on the attitude indicator. Even though the miniature aircraft is not level with the horizon bar, pitch attitude can be established by observing the relative position of the miniature aircraft and the horizon bar.

The attitude indicator may show small misrepresentations of bank attitude during maneuvers which involve turns. This precession error can be immediately detected by closely cross-checking the other bank instruments during these maneuvers. Precession normally is noticed when rolling out of a turn. If, on the completion of a turn, the miniature aircraft is level and the helicopter is still turning, make a small change of bank attitude to center the turn needle and stop the movement of the heading indicator.

In coordinated flight, the heading indicator gives an indirect indication of the helicopter’s bank attitude. When a helicopter is banked, it turns. When the lateral axis of the helicopter is level, it flies straight. Therefore, in coordinated flight, when

Power Control During Straight-and-Level Flight

Establishing specific power settings is accomplished through collective pitch adjustments and throttle control, where necessary. For reciprocating powered helicopters, power indications are observed on the manifold pressure gauge. For turbine powered helicopters, power is observed on the torque gauge. (Since most instrument flight rules (IFR)-certified helicopters are turbine powered, this discussion concentrates on this type of helicopter.)

At any given airspeed, a specific power setting determines whether the helicopter is in level flight, in a climb, or in a descent. For example, cruising airspeed maintained with cruising power results in level flight. If you increase the power setting and hold the airspeed constant, the helicopter climbs. Conversely, if you decrease power and hold the airspeed constant, the helicopter descends. As a rule of thumb, in a turbine-engine powered helicopter, a 10 to 15 percent change in the torque value required to maintain level flight results in a climb or descent of approximately 500 fpm, if the airspeed remains the same.

If the altitude is held constant, power determines the airspeed. For example, at a constant altitude, cruising power results in cruising airspeed. Any deviation from the cruising power setting results in a change of airspeed. When power is added to increase airspeed, the nose of the helicopter pitches up and yaws to the right in a helicopter with a counterclockwise main rotor blade rotation. When power is reduced to decrease airspeed, the nose pitches down and yaws to the left. The yawing effect is most pronounced in single-rotor helicopters, and is absent in helicopters with counter-rotating rotors. To counteract the yawing tendency of the helicopter, apply pedal trim during power changes.

To maintain a constant altitude and airspeed in level flight, coordinate pitch attitude and power control. The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the need for a change in power and/or pitch attitude. If the altitude is constant and the airspeed is high or low, change the power to obtain the desired airspeed. During the change in power, make an accurate interpretation of the altimeter; then counteract any deviation from the desired altitude by an appropriate change of pitch attitude. If the altitude is low and the airspeed is high, or vice versa, a change in pitch attitude alone may return the helicopter to the proper altitude and airspeed. If both airspeed and altitude are low, or if both are high, a change in both power and pitch attitude is necessary.

To make power control easy when changing airspeed, it is necessary to know the approximate power settings for the various airspeeds which will be flown. When the airspeed is to be changed any appreciable amount, adjust the torque so that it is approximately 5 percent over or under that setting necessary to maintain the new airspeed. As the power approaches the desired setting, include the torque meter in the cross-check to determine when the proper adjustment has been accomplished. As the airspeed is changing, adjust the pitch attitude to maintain a constant altitude. A constant heading should be maintained throughout the change. As the desired airspeed is approached, adjust power to the new cruising power setting and further adjust pitch attitude to maintain altitude. Overpowering and underpowering torque approximately 5 percent results in a change of airspeed at a moderate rate, which allows ample time to adjust pitch and bank smoothly. The instrument indications for straight-andlevel flight at normal cruise, and during the transition from normal cruise to slow cruise are illustrated in figures 6-6 and 6-7. After the airspeed has stabilized at slow cruise, the attitude indicator shows an approximate level pitch attitude.

The altimeter is the primary pitch instrument during level flight, whether flying at a constant airspeed, or during a change in airspeed. Altitude should not change during airspeed transitions. The heading indicator remains the primary bank instrument. Whenever the airspeed is changed any appreciable amount, the torque meter is momentarily the primary instrument for power control. When the airspeed approaches that desired, the airspeed indicator again becomes the primary instrument for power control.

The cross-check of the pitch-and-bank instruments to produce straight-and-level flight should be combined with the power control instruments. With a constant power setting, a normal cross-check should be satisfactory. When changing power, the speed of the cross-check must be increased to cover the pitch-and-bank instruments adequately. This is necessary to counteract any deviations immediately.

Overpowering: Using more power Underpowering: Using less power than required for the purpose of than required for the purpose of achieving a faster rate of airspeed achieving a faster rate of airspeed change. change.

Common Errors During Airspeed Changes

1. Improper use of power.
2. Overcontrolling pitch attitude.
3. Failure to maintain heading.
4. Failure to maintain altitude.
5. Improper pedal trim.

Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeed and Constant Rate)

For any power setting and load condition, there is only one airspeed which will give the most efficient rate of climb. To determine this, you should consult the climb data for the type of helicopter being flown. The technique varies according to the airspeed on entry and whether you want to make a constant-airspeed or constant-rate climb.

Entry

To enter a constant-airspeed climb from cruise airspeed, when the climb speed is lower than cruise speed, simultaneously increase power to the climb power setting and adjust pitch attitude to the approximate climb attitude. The increase in power causes the helicopter to start climbing and only very slight back cyclic pressure is needed to complete the change from level to climb attitude. The attitude indicator should be used to accomplish the pitch change. If the transition from level flight to a climb is smooth, the vertical speed indicator shows an immediate upward trend and then stops at a rate appropriate to the stabilized airspeed and attitude. Primary and supporting instruments for climb entry are illustrated in figure 6-8.

When the helicopter stabilizes on a constant airspeed and attitude, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch. The torque meter continues to be primary for power and should be monitored closely to determine if the proper climb power setting is being maintained. Primary and supporting instruments for a stabilized constant-airspeed climb are shown in figure 6-9.

The technique and procedures for entering a constant-rate climb are very similar to those previously described for a constant-airspeed climb. For training purposes, a constant-

Technique: The manner or style in which the procedures are executed.

rate climb is entered from climb airspeed. The rate used is the one that is appropriate for the particular helicopter being flown. Normally, in helicopters with low climb rates, 500 fpm is appropriate, in helicopters capable of high climb rates, use a rate of 1,000 fpm.

To enter a constant-rate climb, increase power to the approximate setting for the desired rate. As power is applied, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch until the vertical speed approaches the desired rate. At this time, the vertical speed indicator becomes primary for pitch. Change pitch attitude by reference to the attitude indicator to maintain the desired vertical speed. When the vertical speed indicator becomes primary for pitch, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power. Primary and supporting instruments for a stabilized constant-rate climb are illustrated in figure 6-10. Adjust power to maintain desired airspeed. Pitch attitude and power corrections should be closely coordinated. To illustrate this, if the vertical speed is correct but the airspeed is low, add power. As power is increased, it may be necessary to lower the pitch attitude slightly to avoid increasing the vertical rate. Adjust the pitch attitude smoothly to avoid over-controlling. Small power corrections usually will be sufficient to bring the airspeed back to the desired indication.

The level-off from a constant-rate climb is accomplished in the same manner as the level-off from a constant-airspeed climb.

Straight Descents (Constant Airspeed and Constant Rate)

A descent may be performed at any normal airspeed the helicopter is capable of, but the airspeed must be determined prior to entry. The technique is determined by whether you want to perform a constant-airspeed or a constant-rate descent.

Entry

If your airspeed is higher than descending airspeed, and you wish to make a constant-airspeed descent at the descending airspeed, reduce power to the descending power setting and maintain a constant altitude using cyclic pitch control. When you approach the descending airspeed, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch, and the torque meter is primary for power. As you hold the airspeed constant, the helicopter begins to descend. For a constant-rate descent, reduce the power to the approximate setting for the desired rate. If the descent is started at the descending airspeed, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch until the vertical speed indicator approaches the desired rate. At this time, the vertical speed indicator becomes primary for pitch, and the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power. Coordinate power and pitch attitude control as was described earlier for constant-rate climbs.

Level-Off

The level-off from a constant-airspeed descent may be made at descending airspeed or at cruise airspeed, if this is higher than descending airspeed. As in a climb level-off, the amount of lead depends on the rate of descent and control technique. For a level-off at descending airspeed, the lead should be approximately 10 percent of the vertical speed. At the lead altitude, simultaneously increase power to the setting necessary to maintain descending airspeed in level flight. At this point, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch, and the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power.

To level off at a higher airspeed than descending airspeed, increase the power approximately 100 to 150 feet prior to reaching the desired altitude. The power setting should be that which is necessary to maintain the desired airspeed in level flight. Hold the vertical speed constant until approximately 50 feet above the desired altitude. At this point, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch, and the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power. The level-off from a constant-rate descent should be accomplished in the same manner as the level-off from a constant-airspeed descent.

When making turns by reference to the flight instruments, they should be made at a precise rate. Turns described in this chapter are those which do not exceed a standard rate of 3° per second as indicated on the turn-and-slip indicator. True airspeed determines the angle of bank necessary to maintain a standard-rate turn. A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank required for a standard-rate turn is to divide your airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For example, at 60 knots, approximately 9° of bank is required (60 ÷ 10 = 6 + 3 = 9); at 80 knots, approximately 12° of bank is needed for a standard-rate turn.

To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply cyclic in the direction opposite the turn. The rate of roll-out should be the same as the rate used when rolling into the turn. As you initiate the turn recovery, the attitude indicator becomes primary for bank. When the helicopter is approximately level, the heading indicator becomes primary for bank as in straight-and-level flight. Cross-check the airspeed indicator and ball closely to maintain the desired airspeed and pedal trim.

Turns to a Predetermined Heading

A helicopter turns as long as its lateral axis is tilted; therefore, the recovery must start before the desired heading is reached. The amount of lead varies with the rate of turn and your piloting technique.

As a guide, when making a 3° per second rate of turn, use a lead of one-half the bank angle. For example, if you are using a 12° bank angle, use half of that, or 6°, as the lead point prior to your desired heading. Use this lead until you are able to determine the exact amount required by your particular technique. The bank angle should never exceed the number of degrees to be turned. As in any standard-rate turn, the rate of recovery should be the same as the rate for entry. During turns to predetermined headings, cross-check the primary and supporting pitch, bank, and power instruments closely.

Timed Turns

A timed turn is a turn in which the clock and turn-and-slip indicator are used to change heading a definite number of degrees in a given time. For example, using a standard-rate turn, a helicopter turns 45° in 15 seconds. Using a halfstandard-rate turn, the helicopter turns 45° in 30 seconds. Timed turns can be used if your heading indicator becomes inoperative.

Prior to performing timed turns, the turn coordinator should be calibrated to determine the accuracy of its indications. To do this, establish a standard-rate turn by referring to the turn-and-slip indicator. Then as the sweep second hand of the clock passes a cardinal point (12, 3, 6, or 9), check the heading on the heading indicator. While holding the indicated rate of turn constant, note the heading changes at 10-second intervals. If the helicopter turns more or less than 30 degrees in that interval, a smaller or larger deflection of the needle is

Calibrated: The instrument indication was compared with a standard value to determine the accuracy of the instrument.

necessary to produce a standard-rate turn. When you have calibrated the turn-and-slip indicator during turns in each direction, note the corrected deflections, if any, and apply them during all timed turns.

You use the same cross-check and control technique in making timed turns that you use to make turns to a predetermined heading, except that you substitute the clock for the heading indicator. The needle of the turn-and-slip indicator is primary for bank control, the altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the airspeed indicator is primary for power control. Begin the roll-in when the clock’s second hand passes a cardinal point, hold the turn at the calibrated standard-rate indication, or half-standard-rate for small changes in heading, and begin the roll-out when the computed number of seconds has elapsed. If the roll-in and roll-out rates are the same, the time taken during entry and recovery need not be considered in the time computation.

If you practice timed turns with a full instrument panel, check the heading indicator for the accuracy of your turns. If you execute the turns without the heading indicator, use the magnetic compass at the completion of the turn to check turn accuracy, taking compass deviation errors into consideration.

Change of Airspeed in Turns

Changing airspeed in turns is an effective maneuver for increasing your proficiency in all three basic instrument skills. Since the maneuver involves simultaneous changes in all components of control, proper execution requires a rapid cross-check and interpretation, as well as smooth control. Proficiency in the maneuver also contributes to your confidence in the instruments during attitude and power changes involved in more complex maneuvers.

Pitch and power control techniques are the same as those used during airspeed changes in straight-and-level flight. As discussed previously, the angle of bank necessary for a given rate of turn is proportional to the true airspeed. Since the turns are executed at standard rate, the angle of bank must be varied in direct proportion to the airspeed change in order to maintain a constant rate of turn. During a reduction of airspeed, you must decrease the angle of bank and increase the pitch attitude to maintain altitude and a standard-rate turn.

The altimeter and the needle on the turn indicator should remain constant throughout the turn. The altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the turn needle is primary for bank control. The torque meter is primary for power control while the airspeed is changing. As the airspeed approaches the new indication, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control.

Two methods of changing airspeed in turns may be used. In the first method, airspeed is changed after the turn is established. In the second method, the airspeed change is initiated simultaneously with the turn entry. The first method is easier, but regardless of the method used, the rate of crosscheck must be increased as you reduce power. As the helicopter decelerates, check the altimeter and vertical speed indicator for needed pitch changes, and the bank instruments for needed bank changes. If the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator shows a deviation from the desired deflection, change the bank. Adjust pitch attitude to maintain altitude. When the airspeed approaches that desired, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control. Adjust the torque meter to maintain the desired airspeed. Use pedal trim to ensure the maneuver is coordinated.

Until your control technique is very smooth, frequently crosscheck the attitude indicator to keep from overcontrolling and to provide approximate bank angles appropriate for the changing airspeeds.

The use of gyroscopic heading indicators make heading control very easy. However, if the heading indicator fails or your helicopter does not have one installed, you must use the magnetic compass for heading reference. When making compass-only turns, you need to adjust for the lead or lag created by acceleration and deceleration errors so that you roll out on the desired heading. When turning to a heading of north, the lead for the roll-out must include the number of degrees of your latitude plus the lead you normally use in recovery from turns. During a turn to a south heading, maintain the turn until the compass passes south the number of degrees of your latitude, minus your normal roll-out lead. For example, when turning from an easterly direction to north, where the latitude is 30°, start the roll-out when the compass reads 037° (30° plus one-half the 15° angle of bank, or whatever amount is appropriate for your rate of roll-out). When turning from an easterly direction to south, start the roll-out when the magnetic compass reads 203° (180° plus 30° minus one-half the angle of bank). When making similar turns from a westerly direction, the appropriate points at which to begin your roll-out would be 323° for a turn to north, and 157° for a turn to south.

Common Errors During Turns

1. Failure to maintain desired turn rate.
2. Failure to maintain altitude in level turns.
3. Failure to maintain desired airspeed.
4. Variation in the rate of entry and recovery.
5. Failure to use proper lead in turns to a heading.
6. Failure to properly compute time during timed turns.
7. Failure to use proper leads and lags during the compass turns.
8. Improper use of power.
9. Failure to use proper pedal trim.

Unusual Attitudes

Any maneuver not required for normal helicopter instrument flight is an unusual attitude and may be caused by any one or a combination of factors such as turbulence, disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupation with cockpit duties, carelessness in cross-checking, errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency in aircraft control. Due to the instability characteristics of the helicopter, unusual attitudes can be extremely critical. As soon as you detect an unusual attitude, make a recovery to straight-and-level flight as soon as possible with a minimum loss of altitude.

Since the displacement of the controls used in recoveries from unusual attitudes may be greater than those for normal flight, take care in making adjustments as straight-and-level flight is approached. Cross-check the other instruments closely to avoid overcontrolling.

Emergencies

Emergencies under instrument flight are handled similarly to those occurring during VFR flight. A thorough knowledge of the helicopter and its systems, as well as good aeronautical knowledge and judgment, prepares you to better handle emergency situations. Safe operations begin with preflight planning and a thorough preflight inspection. Plan your route of flight so there are adequate landing sites in the event you have to make an emergency landing. Make sure you have all your resources, such as maps, publications, flashlights, and fire extinguishers readily available for use in an emergency.

During any emergency, you should first fly the aircraft. This means that you should make sure the helicopter is under control, including the determination of emergency landing sites. Then perform the emergency checklist memory items, followed by written items in the rotorcraft flight manual (RFM). Once all these items are under control, you should notify air traffic control (ATC). Declare any emergency on the last assigned ATC frequency, or if one was not issued, transmit on the emergency frequency 121.5. Set the transponder to the emergency squawk code 7700. This code triggers an alarm or a special indicator in radar facilities.

Most in-flight emergencies, including low fuel and a complete electrical failure, require you to land as soon as possible. In the event of an electrical fire, turn all nonessential equipment off and land immediately. Some essential electrical

Land as soon as possible: Land Land immediately: The urgency of without delay at the nearest suitable the landing is paramount. The area, such as an open field, at which primary consideration is to ensure a safe approach and landing is the survival of the occupants. assured. Landing in trees, water, or other

unsafe areas should be considered

only as a last resort.

instruments, such as the attitude indicator, may be required for a safe landing. A navigation radio failure may not require an immediate landing as long as the flight can continue safely. In this case, you should land as soon as practical. ATC may be able to provide vectors to a safe landing area. For the specific details on what to do during an emergency, you should refer to the RFM for the helicopter you are flying.

Autorotations

Both straight-ahead and turning autorotations should be practiced by reference to instruments. This training will ensure that you can take prompt corrective action to maintain positive aircraft control in the event of an engine failure.

To enter autorotation, reduce collective pitch smoothly to maintain a safe rotor RPM and apply pedal trim to keep the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator centered. The pitch attitude of the helicopter should be approximately level as shown by the attitude indicator. The airspeed indicator is the primary pitch instrument and should be adjusted to the recommended autorotation speed. The heading indicator is primary for bank in a straight-ahead autorotation. In a turning autorotation, a standard-rate turn should be maintained by reference to the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator.

Common Errors During Autorotations

1. Uncoordinated entry due to improper pedal trim.
2. Poor airspeed control due to improper pitch attitude.
3. Poor heading control in straight-ahead autorotations.
4. Failure to maintain proper rotor RPM.
5. Failure to maintain a standard-rate turn during turning autorotations.

Servo Failure

Most helicopters certified for single-pilot IFR flight are required to have autopilots, which greatly reduces pilot workload. If an autopilot servo fails, however, you have to resume manual control of the helicopter. How much your workload increases, depends on which servo fails. If a cyclic servo fails, you may want to land immediately as the workload increases tremendously. If an antitorque or collective servo fails, you might be able to continue to the next suitable landing site.

Land as soon as practical: The landing site and duration of flight are at the discretion of the pilot. Extended flight beyond the nearest approved landing area is not recommended.